My Educational Philosophy A Reflective Comparison

each pedagogue has the lower limit of five old ages of experience. In comparing my educational doctrine in which I have gain through their old ages of experience. I will besides contrast their doctrine along side of my ain. At manus there are assorted diverse constructions in doctrine utilized in our instruction construction today. It is non unnatural to separate extra doctrines integrated in a school or schoolroom environment. While incorporating the assorted educational positions in the schoolroom, one would be obliged to hold construction of their schoolroom community. An person who enjoys learning will invariably prevail to develop their comprehension and acclimatise with the changing era. PhD Elise Kirchoff an pedagogue of 25 plus old ages in instruction has the assurance, creativeness and bravery ; individualizing has she would show her instruction manner. She believes in being convenient in order to be lissome towards each pupil acquisition demands. PhD Kirchoff besides considers mortal true within our school territory ; instructors contain a kind of freedom in their academic professionalism when it extends to choose on methods of direction and developing lessons. Meaning it all depends on the territory 1 may work for. As clip goes by each coevals instruction, larning potency does vary. The instruction manner educated in the early 80 ‘s is most likely infective in today ‘s schoolroom. PhD Kirchoff agrees in non being prepared on holding to make â€Å" throng control † ( Kirchoff ) . Though in the methods of subject in maintaining a schoolroom orderly focused and respectful she replied, have zero tolerance in schoolroom breaks would maintain the le sson traveling. With 30 old ages of learning experience PhD Kirchoff feels NCLB has non aided in her ability to learn, it has footing an surplus in paper work as an option. However throughout her old ages of learning she has come to appreciate the diverseness of legion pupils and how each pupil acquisition demands are inimitable. There are no cooky cutter lessons for particular need pupils. Jason Keller with 10 old ages of learning experience nine old ages in physical instruction while one twelvemonth in particular instruction. Keller Teachs in the BIC unit ( behavioural unit ) he based his replies toward his category. He based entirely on the unit for the ground of, when I set up the interview he was merely able to reply as a particular instruction instructor non has physical instruction instructor in which he has 9 old ages of experience. That said Keller ‘s personal strengths he finds particularly helpful in learning is to be patient and understanding. The pupils who are placed here have utmost emotional, behavioural jobs non including their disablements. Keller describes his instruction manner geared toward positive support instead than ensue and hit oriented, more advancement and betterment based. In comparing to PhD Kirchoff, Keller besides deems on the belief of holding the freedom to academic methods of direction and developing lessons. Both feel the same about NCLB, how it has non made their occupation as pedagogues any easier. Merely it has been a load of paperwork. Where they experience the clip is wasted on alternatively on category direction. Jessica Morales five old ages of schoolroom direction, Morales finds strengths particularly helpful in her instruction describe as, willingness to ne'er give up. When feeling overwhelmed, one needs to be able to stay unagitated and take a deep breath. Her teaching manner is flexible a manner to suit to all her pupils demands. In pull offing her to be flexible for the diverseness of each of her pupils it takes some work, though she feels the more that she gets to cognize her pupils, the easier it becomes. It will ne'er be wholly easy, but you will larn to suit your pupils. In comparing to these fantastic pedagogues my educational doctrine I would depict as being able to intrust the instruction and development to every pupil in malice of cultural or cultural background or economic position. However, my educational doctrine encloses by wrought of legion effects ; in trusting on my philosophic foundation to assist me construct both content and teaching method. It is of import to hold strong beliefs, grounded in sound theory to steer our teaching.A It is every bit imperative to go on unfastened minded to innovative tendencies and techniques that may advance our students.A In naming an educational doctrine motionless it will non be eligible ; it alters with clip and apprehension, and I will persistently copy, detect, and filtrate what I believe and why I believe it. As I gain knowledge my doctrine will alter, take a few things out or taking a few things in. A Among these changes I am unfastened to anything and my positions will be flexible and as unfastened to sentiments as I can be. A When I tell my pupils to woolgather, purpose for the stars, I am stating they can suppress a new end each new twenty-four hours, and so I will hold succeeded in my schoolroom. As an pedagogue I have seen the impact on pupil ‘s lives as their instructor the positive influence we have towards them to go good function theoretical accounts in society. We as instructors and students to the system learn something every twenty-four hours. I anticipate bring forthing a affecting experience within my pupils ; whereby they develop comprehension, include an optimistic ego reg ard and connubial motivation.A The apprehension they attain will be nonsubjective oriented and syllabus driven.A The manner I achieve this will fluctuate intrusting on the eccentricity of peculiar category and the pupils in the category. Finally, professional development is compulsory for whichever instructor who obtains unremitting self betterment. A I am non merely an pedagogue ; I am facilitator in the instruction development and supply a positive function theoretical account to society. A I contain an digesting answerability to magnify my comprehension of both capable affair and sophistication, and to invariably re-examine my proceedings and course of study in response to a continuously altering environment. As an educationist I need to be enthusiastically attentive of the place I participate in a pupil ‘s existence.A Life suggestions an incomputable district of educational duties, each forcing personal growing and extended cognition with each individual.A As a instructor, I need to be a supple to the character that validates an unqualified, reliable blessing of all my pupils and invariably petitions to help an instruction that counterparts each individual.A In my schoolroom, I will show a secure, an environment which encourages a regard of persons self construct and larning style.A Many have an of import input to suggest to this world.A In any circumstance I will help pupils in their hunt of their individuality immediate to the extended ends of instruction.

Impact of Advertisement

Advertising From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search This article is about the form of communication. For other uses, see Advertiser (disambiguation). â€Å"Adverts† redirects here. For the English punk band, see The Adverts. For content guidelines on the use of advertising in Wikipedia articles, see Wikipedia:Spam. For a proposal on advertising about Wikipedia, see Wikipedia:Advertisements. A Coca-Cola advertisement from the 1890s Marketing| Key concepts| Product marketing * Pricing * Distribution * Service * Retail * Brand management * Account-based marketing * Ethics * Effectiveness * Research * Segmentation * Strategy * Activation * Management * Dominance * Marketing operations| Promotional contents| * Advertising * Branding * Underwriting spot * Direct marketing * Personal sales * Product placement * Publicity * Sales promotion * Sex in advertising * Loyalty marketing * Mobile marketing * Premiums * Prizes| Promotional media| Printing * Publicatio n * Broadcasting * Out-of-home advertising * Internet * Point of sale * Merchandise * Digital marketing * In-game advertising * Product demonstration * Word-of-mouth * Brand ambassador * Drip marketing * Visual merchandising| * v * t * e| Advertising is a form of communication for marketing and used to encourage or persuade an audience (viewers, readers or listeners; sometimes a specific group) to continue or take some new action.Most commonly, the desired result is to drive consumer behavior with respect to a commercial offering, although political and ideological advertising is also common. In Latin, ad vertere means â€Å"to turn the mind toward. † [1] The purpose of advertising may also be to reassure employees or shareholders that a company is viable or successful. Advertising messages are usually paid for by sponsors and viewed via various traditional media; including mass media such as newspaper, magazines, television commercial, radio advertisement, outdoor advertisin g or direct mail; or new media such as blogs, websites or text messages.Commercial advertisers often seek to generate increased consumption of their products or services through â€Å"branding,† which involves the repetition of an image or product name in an effort to associate certain qualities with the brand in the minds of consumers. Non-commercial advertisers who spend money to advertise items other than a consumer product or service include political parties, interest groups, religious organizations and governmental agencies. Nonprofit organizations may rely on free modes of persuasion, such as a public service announcement (PSA).Modern advertising was created with the innovative techniques introduced with tobacco advertising in the 1920s, most significantly with the campaigns of Edward Bernays, which is often considered the founder of modern, Madison Avenue advertising. [1][2][3] In 2010, spending on advertising was estimated at $142. 5 billion in the United States and $467 billion worldwide [4] Internationally, the largest (â€Å"big four†) advertising conglomerates are Interpublic, Omnicom, Publicis, and WPP. [citation needed] Contents * 1 History * 1. 19th century * 1. 2 20th century * 1. 2. 1 On the radio from the 1920s * 1. 2. 2 Public service advertising in WW2 * 1. 2. 3 Commercial television in the 1950s * 1. 2. 4 Media diversification in the 1960s * 1. 2. 5 Cable tv from the 1980s * 1. 2. 6 On the internet from the 1990s * 2 Advertising theory * 2. 1 Hierarchy of effects model * 2. 2 Marketing mix * 3 Types of advertising * 4 Sales promotions * 5 Media and advertising approaches * 5. 1 Rise in new media * 5. Niche marketing * 5. 3 Crowdsourcing * 5. 4 Global advertising * 5. 5 Foreign public messaging * 5. 6 Diversification * 5. 7 New technology * 5. 8 Advertising education * 6 Criticisms * 7 Regulation * 8 Advertising research * 9 Semiotics * 10 Gender effects in the processing of advertising * 11 See also * 12 Notes * 13 Reference s * 14 External links| History Edo period advertising flyer from 1806 for a traditional medicine called Kinseitan Egyptians used papyrus to make sales messages and wall posters.Commercial messages and political campaign displays have been found in the ruins of Pompeii and ancient Arabia. Lost and found advertising on papyrus was common in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. Wall or rock painting for commercial advertising is another manifestation of an ancient advertising form, which is present to this day in many parts of Asia, Africa, and South America. The tradition of wall painting can be traced back to Indian rock art paintings that date back to 4000 BC. [5] History tells us that Out-of-home advertising and billboards are the oldest forms of advertising.As the towns and cities of the Middle Ages began to grow, and the general populace was unable to read, signs that today would say cobbler, miller, tailor or blacksmith would use an image associated with their trade such as a boot, a suit, a hat, a clock, a diamond, a horse shoe, a candle or even a bag of flour. Fruits and vegetables were sold in the city square from the backs of carts and wagons and their proprietors used street callers (town criers) to announce their whereabouts for the convenience of the customers.As education became an apparent need and reading, as well as printing, developed advertising expanded to include handbills. [citation needed] In the 18th century[when? ] advertisements started to appear in weekly newspapers in England. These early print advertisements were used mainly to promote books and newspapers, which became increasingly affordable with advances in the printing press; and medicines, which were increasingly sought after as disease ravaged Europe. However, false advertising and so-called â€Å"quack† advertisements became a problem, which ushered in the regulation of advertising content. 9th century An 1895 advertisement for a weight gain product. As the economy expanded during the 19th century, advertising grew alongside. In the United States, the success of this advertising format eventually led to the growth of mail-order advertising. In June 1836, French newspaper La Presse was the first to include paid advertising in its pages, allowing it to lower its price, extend its readership and increase its profitability and the formula was soon copied by all titles. Around 1840, Volney B.Palmer established the roots of the modern day advertising agency in Philadelphia. In 1842 Palmer bought large amounts of space in various newspapers at a discounted rate then resold the space at higher rates to advertisers. The actual ad – the copy, layout, and artwork – was still prepared by the company wishing to advertise; in effect, Palmer was a space broker. The situation changed in the late 19th century when the advertising agency of N. W. Ayer & Son was founded. Ayer and Son offered to plan, create, and execute complete advertising campaigns for i ts customers.By 1900 the advertising agency had become the focal point of creative planning, and advertising was firmly established as a profession. [6] Around the same time, in France, Charles-Louis Havas extended the services of his news agency, Havas to include advertisement brokerage, making it the first French group to organize. At first, agencies were brokers for advertisement space in newspapers. N. W. Ayer & Son was the first full-service agency to assume responsibility for advertising content. N. W. Ayer opened in 1869, and was located in Philadelphia. [6] 20th centuryA print advertisement for the 1913 issue of the Encyclop? dia Britannica At the turn of the century, there were few career choices for women in business; however, advertising was one of the few. Since women were responsible for most of the purchasing done in their household, advertisers and agencies recognized the value of women's insight during the creative process. In fact, the first American advertising to use a sexual sell was created by a woman – for a soap product. Although tame by today's standards,[citation needed] the advertisement featured a couple with the message â€Å"The skin you love to touch†. 7][non-primary source needed] Modern advertising was created with the innovative techniques used in tobacco advertising beginning in the 1920s, most significantly with the campaigns of Edward Bernays, which is often considered as the founder of modern, Madison Avenue advertising. [1][2][3] The tobacco industries was one of the firsts to make use of mass production, with the introduction of the Bonsack machine to roll cigarettes. The Bonsack machine allowed the production of cigarettes for a mass markets, and the tobacco industry needed to match such an increase in supply with the creation of a demand from the masses through advertising. 8] On the radio from the 1920s Advertisement for a live radio broadcast, sponsored by a milk company and published in the Los Angeles Times on May 6, 1930 In the early 1920s, the first radio stations were established by radio equipment manufacturers and retailers who offered programs in order to sell more radios to consumers. As time passed, many non-profit organizations followed suit in setting up their own radio stations, and included: schools, clubs and civic groups. [9] Advertisements of hotels in Pichilemu, Chile from 1935.When the practice of sponsoring programs was popularised, each individual radio program was usually sponsored by a single business in exchange for a brief mention of the business' name at the beginning and end of the sponsored shows. However, radio station owners soon realised they could earn more money by selling sponsorship rights in small time allocations to multiple businesses throughout their radio station's broadcasts, rather than selling the sponsorship rights to single businesses per show. Public service advertising in WW2The advertising techniques used to promote commercial goods a nd services can be used to inform, educate and motivate the public about non-commercial issues, such as HIV/AIDS[citation needed], political ideology, energy conservation and deforestation. Advertising, in its non-commercial guise, is a powerful educational tool capable of reaching and motivating large audiences. â€Å"Advertising justifies its existence when used in the public interest—it is much too powerful a tool to use solely for commercial purposes. Attributed to Howard Gossage by David Ogilvy. Public service advertising, non-commercial advertising, public interest advertising, cause marketing, and social marketing are different terms for (or aspects of) the use of sophisticated advertising and marketing communications techniques (generally associated with commercial enterprise) on behalf of non-commercial, public interest issues and initiatives.In the United States, the granting of television and radio licenses by the FCC is contingent upon the station broadcasting a certain amount of public service advertising. To meet these requirements, many broadcast stations in America air the bulk of their required public service announcements during the late night or early morning when the smallest percentage of viewers are watching, leaving more day and prime time commercial slots available for high-paying advertisers.Public service advertising reached its height during World Wars I and II under the direction of more than one government. During WWII President Roosevelt commissioned the creation of The War Advertising Council (now known as the Ad Council) which is the nation's largest developer of PSA campaigns on behalf of government agencies and non-profit organizations, including the longest-running PSA campaign, Smokey Bear. [citation needed] Commercial television in the 1950s This practice was carried over to commercial television in the late 1940s and early 1950s.A fierce battle was fought between those seeking to commercialise the radio and people who argued that the radio spectrum should be considered a part of the commons – to be used only non-commercially and for the public good. The United Kingdom pursued a public funding model for the BBC, originally a private company, the British Broadcasting Company, but incorporated as a public body by Royal Charter in 1927. In Canada, advocates like Graham Spry were likewise able to persuade the federal government to adopt a public funding model, creating the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation.However, in the United States, the capitalist model prevailed with the passage of the Communications Act of 1934 which created the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). [9] However, the U. S. Congress did require commercial broadcasting companies to operate in the â€Å"public interest, convenience, and necessity†. [10] Public broadcasting now exists in the United States due to the 1967 Public Broadcasting Act which led to the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) and National Publi c Radio (NPR).In the early 1950s, the DuMont Television Network began the modern practice of selling advertisement time to multiple sponsors. Previously, DuMont had trouble finding sponsors for many of their programs and compensated by selling smaller blocks of advertising time to several businesses. This eventually became the standard for the commercial television industry in the United States. However, it was still a common practice to have single sponsor shows, such as The United States Steel Hour.In some instances the sponsors exercised great control over the content of the show—up to and including having one's advertising agency actually writing the show. The single sponsor model is much less prevalent now, a notable exception being the Hallmark Hall of Fame. Media diversification in the 1960s In the 1960s, campaigns featuring heavy spending in different mass media channels became more prominent. For example, the Esso gasoline company spent hundreds of millions of dollar s on a brand awareness campaign built around the simple and alliterative[11] theme Put a Tiger in Your Tank. 12] Psychologist Ernest Dichter[13] and DDB Worldwide copywriter Sandy Sulcer[14] learned that motorists desired both power and play while driving, and chose the tiger as an easy–to–remember symbol to communicate those feelings. The North American and later European campaign featured extensive television and radio and magazine ads, including photos with tiger tails supposedly emerging from car gas tanks, promotional events featuring real tigers, billboards, and in Europe station pump hoses â€Å"wrapped in tiger stripes† as well as pop music songs. 12] Tiger imagery can still be seen on the pumps of successor firm ExxonMobil. Cable tv from the 1980s The late 1980s and early 1990s saw the introduction of cable television and particularly MTV. Pioneering the concept of the music video, MTV ushered in a new type of advertising: the consumer tunes in for the advertising message, rather than it being a by-product or afterthought. As cable and satellite television became increasingly prevalent, specialty channels emerged, including channels entirely devoted to advertising, such as QVC, Home Shopping Network, and ShopTV Canada.On the internet from the 1990s Main article: Internet marketing With the advent of the ad server, marketing through the Internet opened new frontiers for advertisers and contributed to the â€Å"dot-com† boom of the 1990s. Entire corporations operated solely on advertising revenue, offering everything from coupons to free Internet access. At the turn of the 21st century, a number of websites including the search engine Google, started a change in online advertising by emphasizing contextually relevant, unobtrusive ads intended to help, rather than inundate, users.This has led to a plethora of similar efforts and an increasing trend of interactive advertising. The share of advertising spending relative to GDP h as changed little across large changes in media. For example, in the US in 1925, the main advertising media were newspapers, magazines, signs on streetcars, and outdoor posters. Advertising spending as a share of GDP was about 2. 9 percent. By 1998, television and radio had become major advertising media. Nonetheless, advertising spending as a share of GDP was slightly lower—about 2. percent. [15] A recent advertising innovation is â€Å"guerrilla marketing†, which involves unusual approaches such as staged encounters in public places, giveaways of products such as cars that are covered with brand messages, and interactive advertising where the viewer can respond to become part of the advertising message. Guerrilla advertising is becoming increasingly more popular with a lot of companies. This type of advertising is unpredictable and innovative, which causes consumers to buy the product or idea.This reflects an increasing trend of interactive and â€Å"embedded† ads, such as via product placement, having consumers vote through text messages, and various innovations utilizing social network services such as Facebook or Twitter. [citation needed] Advertising theory Hierarchy of effects model | This section contains information of unclear or questionable importance or relevance to the article's subject matter. Please help improve this article by clarifying or removing superfluous information. August 2012) | * Hierarchy of effects model[16] It clarifies the objectives of an advertising campaign and for each individual advertisement. The model suggests that there are six steps a consumer or a business buyer moves through when making a purchase. The steps are: 1. Awareness 2. Knowledge 3. Liking 4. Preference 5. Conviction 6. Purchase * Means-End Theory This approach suggests that an advertisement should contain a message or means that leads the consumer to a desired end state. Leverage Points It is designed to move the consumer from understandi ng a product's benefits to linking those benefits with personal values. * Verbal and Visual Images The political economy of advertisement is the theory that a few powerful groups, or ‘knowledge monopolies,’ control the thoughts, behaviors, and actions of the public through mass media as communication. As a form of communication, advertisement uses repeated verbal and visual images to develop and alter society.Over time, these repeated images and symbols become associated with either positive or negative attributes and can modify the public’s evaluation of such cultural objects as people, religions, ethnic groups, and societal roles. Thus, the media forms the beliefs and values of the public through media portrayals. The messages of the ((political economy)) commonly correlate with current economic interests. [17] Marketing mix | This section contains information of unclear or questionable importance or relevance to the article's subject matter.Please help improve this article by clarifying or removing superfluous information. (August 2012) | Main article: Marketing mix The marketing mix has been the key concept to advertising. The marketing mix was suggested by professor E. Jerome McCarthy in the 1960s. The marketing mix consists of four basic elements called the four P’s. Product is the first P representing the actual product. Price represents the process of determining the value of a product. Place represents the variables of getting the product to the consumer like distribution channels, market coverage and movement organization.The last P stands for Promotion which is the process of reaching the target market and convincing them to go out and buy the product. [citation needed] Types of advertising An advertisement for a diner. Such signs are common on storefronts. Paying people to hold signs is one of the oldest forms of advertising, as with this human billboard pictured above A bus with an advertisement for GAP in Singapore. Bus es and other vehicles are popular media for advertisers. A DBAG Class 101 with UNICEF ads at Ingolstadt main railway station Virtually any medium can be used for advertising.Commercial advertising media can include wall paintings, billboards, street furniture components, printed flyers and rack cards, radio, cinema and television adverts, web banners, mobile telephone screens, shopping carts, web popups, skywriting, bus stop benches, human billboards and forehead advertising, magazines, newspapers, town criers, sides of buses, banners attached to or sides of airplanes (â€Å"logojets†), in-flight advertisements on seatback tray tables or overhead storage bins, taxicab doors, roof mounts and passenger screens, musical stage shows, subway platforms and trains, elastic bands on disposable diapers, doors of bathroom stalls, stickers on apples in supermarkets, shopping cart handles (grabertising), the opening section of streaming audio and video, posters, and the backs of event ti ckets and supermarket receipts. Any place an â€Å"identified† sponsor pays to deliver their message through a medium is advertising. Television advertising / Music in advertising The TV commercial is generally considered the most effective mass-market advertising format, as is reflected by the high prices TV networks charge for commercial airtime during popular TV events. The annual Super Bowl football game in the United States is known as the most prominent advertising event on television.The average cost of a single thirty-second TV spot during this game has reached US$3. 5 million (as of 2012). Some television commercials feature a song or jingle that listeners soon relate to the product. Virtual advertisements may be inserted into regular television programming through computer graphics. It is typically inserted into otherwise blank backdrops[18] or used to replace local billboards that are not relevant to the remote broadcast audience. [19] More controversially, virtual billboards may be inserted into the background[20] where none exist in real-life. This technique is especially used in televised sporting events. [21][22] Virtual product placement is also possible. 23][24] Infomercials An infomercial is a long-format television commercial, typically five minutes or longer. The word â€Å"infomercial† is a portmanteau of the words â€Å"information† ; â€Å"commercial†. The main objective in an infomercial is to create an impulse purchase, so that the consumer sees the presentation and then immediately buys the product through the advertised toll-free telephone number or website. Infomercials describe, display, and often demonstrate products and their features, and commonly have testimonials from consumers and industry professionals. Radio advertising Radio advertising is a form of advertising via the medium of radio.Radio advertisements are broadcast as radio waves to the air from a transmitter to an antenna and a thus to a re ceiving device. Airtime is purchased from a station or network in exchange for airing the commercials. While radio has the limitation of being restricted to sound, proponents of radio advertising often cite this as an advantage. Radio is an expanding medium that can be found not only on air, but also online. According to Arbitron, radio has approximately 241. 6 million weekly listeners, or more than 93 percent of the U. S. population. Online advertising Online advertising is a form of promotion that uses the Internet and World Wide Web for the expressed purpose of delivering marketing messages to attract customers. Online ads are delivered by an ad server.Examples of online advertising include contextual ads that appear on search engine results pages, banner ads, in text ads, Rich Media Ads, Social network advertising, online classified advertising, advertising networks and e-mail marketing, including e-mail spam. Product placements Covert advertising, also known as guerrilla advert ising, is when a product or brand is embedded in entertainment and media. For example, in a film, the main character can use an item or other of a definite brand, as in the movie Minority Report, where Tom Cruise's character John Anderton owns a phone with the Nokia logo clearly written in the top corner, or his watch engraved with the Bulgari logo. Another example of advertising in film is in I, Robot, where main character played by Will Smith mentions his Converse shoes several times, calling them â€Å"classics,† because the film is set far in the future.I, Robot and Spaceballs also showcase futuristic cars with the Audi and Mercedes-Benz logos clearly displayed on the front of the vehicles. Cadillac chose to advertise in the movie The Matrix Reloaded, which as a result contained many scenes in which Cadillac cars were used. Similarly, product placement for Omega Watches, Ford, VAIO, BMW and Aston Martin cars are featured in recent James Bond films, most notably Casino Roy ale. In â€Å"Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer†, the main transport vehicle shows a large Dodge logo on the front. Blade Runner includes some of the most obvious product placement; the whole film stops to show a Coca-Cola billboard. Press advertisingPress advertising describes advertising in a printed medium such as a newspaper, magazine, or trade journal. This encompasses everything from media with a very broad readership base, such as a major national newspaper or magazine, to more narrowly targeted media such as local newspapers and trade journals on very specialized topics. A form of press advertising is classified advertising, which allows private individuals or companies to purchase a small, narrowly targeted ad for a low fee advertising a product or service. Another form of press advertising is the Display Ad, which is a larger ad (can include art) that typically run in an article section of a newspaper.Billboard advertising Billboards are large structures loc ated in public places which display advertisements to passing pedestrians and motorists. Most often, they are located on main roads with a large amount of passing motor and pedestrian traffic; however, they can be placed in any location with large amounts of viewers, such as on mass transit vehicles and in stations, in shopping malls or office buildings, and in stadiums. The RedEye newspaper advertised to its target market at North Avenue Beach with a sailboat billboard on Lake Michigan. Mobile billboard advertising Mobile billboards are generally vehicle mounted billboards or digital screens.These can be on dedicated vehicles built solely for carrying advertisements along routes preselected by clients, they can also be specially equipped cargo trucks or, in some cases, large banners strewn from planes. The billboards are often lighted; some being backlit, and others employing spotlights. Some billboard displays are static, while others change; for example, continuously or periodica lly rotating among a set of advertisements. Mobile displays are used for various situations in metropolitan areas throughout the world, including: Target advertising, One-day, and long-term campaigns, Conventions, Sporting events, Store openings and similar promotional events, and Big advertisements from smaller companies. In-store advertising In-store advertising is any advertisement placed in a retail store.It includes placement of a product in visible locations in a store, such as at eye level, at the ends of aisles and near checkout counters (aka POP—Point Of Purchase display), eye-catching displays promoting a specific product, and advertisements in such places as shopping carts and in-store video displays. Coffee cup advertising Coffee cup advertising is any advertisement placed upon a coffee cup that is distributed out of an office, cafe, or drive-through coffee shop. This form of advertising was first popularized in Australia, and has begun growing in popularity in th e United States, India, and parts of the Middle East. [citation needed] Street advertising This type of advertising first came to prominence in the UK by Street Advertising Services to create outdoor advertising on street furniture and pavements.Working with products such as Reverse Graffiti, air dancer's and 3D pavement advertising, the media became an affordable and effective tool for getting brand messages out into public spaces. [citation needed] Sheltered Outdoor Advertising This type of advertising opens the possibility of combining outdoor with indoor advertisement by placing large mobile, structures (tents) in public places on temporary bases. The large outer advertising space exerts a strong pull on the observer, the product is promoted indoor, where the creative decor can intensify the impression. Celebrity branding This type of advertising focuses upon using celebrity power, fame, money, popularity to gain recognition for their products and promote specific stores or prod ucts.Advertisers often advertise their products, for example, when celebrities share their favorite products or wear clothes by specific brands or designers. Celebrities are often involved in advertising campaigns such as television or print adverts to advertise specific or general products. The use of celebrities to endorse a brand can have its downsides, however. One mistake by a celebrity can be detrimental to the public relations of a brand. For example, following his performance of eight gold medals at the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing, China, swimmer Michael Phelps' contract with Kellogg's was terminated, as Kellogg's did not want to associate with him after he was photographed smoking marijuana.Celebrities such as Britney Spears have advertised for multiple products including Pepsi, Candies from Kohl's, Twister, NASCAR, Toyota and many more. Sales promotions Sales promotions are another way to advertise. Sales promotions are double purposed because they are used to gather inf ormation about what type of customers you draw in and where they are, and to jumpstart sales. Sales promotions include things like contests and games, sweepstakes, product giveaways, samples coupons, loyalty programs, and discounts. The ultimate goal of sales promotions is to stimulate potential customers to action. [25] Media and advertising approaches | This section may contain original research.Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding references. Statements consisting only of original research may be removed. (April 2012) | | This section needs additional citations for verification. (April 2012)| Increasingly, other media are overtaking many of the â€Å"traditional† media such as television, radio and newspaper because of a shift toward consumer's usage of the Internet for news and music as well as devices like digital video recorders (DVRs) such as TiVo. [26] Digital signage is poised to become a major mass media because of its ability to reach larger au diences for less money. Digital signage also offer the unique ability to see the target audience where they are reached by the medium.Technological advances have also made it possible to control the message on digital signage with much precision, enabling the messages to be relevant to the target audience at any given time and location which in turn, gets more response from the advertising. Digital signage is being successfully employed in supermarkets. [27] Another successful use of digital signage is in hospitality locations such as restaurants. [28] and malls. [29] Advertising on the World Wide Web is a recent phenomenon. Prices of Web-based advertising space are dependent on the â€Å"relevance† of the surrounding web content and the traffic that the website receives. Reasons for online display advertising: Display ads generate awareness quickly.Unlike search, which requires someone to be aware of a need, display advertising can drive awareness of something new and withou t previous knowledge. Display works well for direct response. Display is not only used for generating awareness, it’s used for direct response campaigns that link to a landing page with a clear ‘call to action’. E-mail advertising is another recent phenomenon. Unsolicited bulk E-mail advertising is known as â€Å"e-mail spam†. Spam has been a problem for e-mail users for many years. A new form of advertising that is growing rapidly is social network advertising. It is online advertising with a focus on social networking sites.This is a relatively immature market, but it has shown a lot of promise as advertisers are able to take advantage of the demographic information the user has provided to the social networking site. Friendertising is a more precise advertising term in which people are able to direct advertisements toward others directly using social network service. [citation needed] As the mobile phone became a new mass media in 1998 when the first pa id downloadable content appeared on mobile phones in Finland, it was only a matter of time until mobile advertising followed, also first launched in Finland in 2000. By 2007 the value of mobile advertising had reached $2. 2 billion and providers such as Admob delivered billions of mobile ads. citation needed] More advanced mobile ads include banner ads, coupons, Multimedia Messaging Service picture and video messages, advergames and various engagement marketing campaigns. A particular feature driving mobile ads is the 2D Barcode, which replaces the need to do any typing of web addresses, and uses the camera feature of modern phones to gain immediate access to web content. 83 percent of Japanese mobile phone users already are active users of 2D barcodes. [citation needed] Some companies have proposed placing messages or corporate logos on the side of booster rockets and the International Space Station. [citation needed] Unpaid advertising (also called â€Å"publicity advertisingâ₠¬ ), can provide good exposure at minimal cost.Personal recommendations (â€Å"bring a friend†, â€Å"sell it†), spreading buzz, or achieving the feat of equating a brand with a common noun (in the United States, â€Å"Xerox† = â€Å"photocopier†, â€Å"Kleenex† = tissue, â€Å"Vaseline† = petroleum jelly, â€Å"Hoover† = vacuum cleaner, and â€Å"Band-Aid† = adhesive bandage) — these can be seen as the pinnacle of any advertising campaign. However, some companies oppose the use of their brand name to label an object. Equating a brand with a common noun also risks turning that brand into a genericized trademark – turning it into a generic term which means that its legal protection as a trademark is lost. From time to time, The CW Television Network airs short programming breaks called â€Å"Content Wraps,† to advertise one company's product during an entire commercial break.The CW pioneered â€Å"content wraps† and some products featured were Herbal Essences, Crest, Guitar Hero II, CoverGirl, and recently Toyota. Recently, there appeared a new promotion concept, â€Å"ARvertising†, advertising on Augmented Reality technology. [citation needed] Controversy exists on the effectiveness of subliminal advertising (see mind control), and the pervasiveness of mass messages (see propaganda). [citation needed] Rise in new media US Newspaper Advertising Revenue Newspaper Association of America published data [30] With the Internet came many new advertising opportunities. Popup, Flash, banner, Popunder, advergaming, and email advertisements (all of which are often unwanted or spam in the case of email) are now commonplace.Particularly since the rise of â€Å"entertaining† advertising, some people may like an advertisement enough to wish to watch it later or show a friend. In general, the advertising community has not yet made this easy, although some have used the Internet to widely distribute their ads to anyone willing to see or hear them. In the last three quarters of 2009 mobile and internet advertising grew by 18. 1% and 9. 2% respectively. Older media advertising saw declines: ? 10. 1% (TV), ? 11. 7% (radio), ? 14. 8% (magazines) and ? 18. 7% (newspapers ). [citation needed] Niche marketing Another significant trend regarding future of advertising is the growing importance of the niche market using niche or targeted ads.Also brought about by the Internet and the theory of The Long Tail, advertisers will have an increasing ability to reach specific audiences. In the past, the most efficient way to deliver a message was to blanket the largest mass market audience possible. However, usage tracking, customer profiles and the growing popularity of niche content brought about by everything from blogs to social networking sites, provide advertisers with audiences that are smaller but much better defined, leading to ads that are more relevant to viewers and more effective for companies' marketing products. Among others, Comcast Spotlight is one such advertiser employing this method in their video on demand menus.These advertisements are targeted to a specific group and can be viewed by anyone wishing to find out more about a particular business or practice at any time, right from their home. This causes the viewer to become proactive and actually choose what advertisements they want to view. [31] Crowdsourcing Main article: Crowdsourcing The concept of crowdsourcing has given way to the trend of user-generated advertisements. User-generated ads are created by consumers as opposed to an advertising agency or the company themselves, most often they are a result of brand sponsored advertising competitions. For the 2007 Super Bowl, the Frito-Lays division of PepsiCo held the Crash the Super Bowl contest, allowing consumers to create their own Doritos commercial. [32] Chevrolet held a similar competition for their Tahoe line of SUVs. 3 2] Due to the success of the Doritos user-generated ads in the 2007 Super Bowl, Frito-Lays relaunched the competition for the 2009 and 2010 Super Bowl. The resulting ads were among the most-watched and most-liked Super Bowl ads. In fact, the winning ad that aired in the 2009 Super Bowl was ranked by the USA Today Super Bowl Ad Meter as the top ad for the year while the winning ads that aired in the 2010 Super Bowl were found by Nielsen's BuzzMetrics to be the â€Å"most buzzed-about†. [33][34] This trend has given rise to several online platforms that host user-generated advertising competitions on behalf of a company. Founded in 2007, Zooppa has launched ad competitions for brands such as Google, Nike, Hershey's, General Mills, Microsoft, NBC Universal, Zinio, and Mini Cooper.Crowdsourced advertisements have gained popularity in part to its cost effective nature, high consumer engagement, and ability to generate word-of-mouth. However, it remains controversial, as the long-t erm impact on the advertising industry is still unclear. [35] Global advertising Advertising has gone through five major stages of development: domestic, export, international, multi-national, and global. For global advertisers, there are four, potentially competing, business objectives that must be balanced when developing worldwide advertising: building a brand while speaking with one voice, developing economies of scale in the creative process, maximising local effectiveness of ads, and increasing the company’s speed of implementation.Born from the evolutionary stages of global marketing are the three primary and fundamentally different approaches to the development of global advertising executions: exporting executions, producing local executions, and importing ideas that travel. [36] Advertising research is key to determining the success of an ad in any country or region. The ability to identify which elements and/or moments of an ad contribute to its success is how econ omies of scale are maximised. Once one knows what works in an ad, that idea or ideas can be imported by any other market. Market research measures, such as Flow of Attention, Flow of Emotion and branding moments provide insight into what is working in an ad in any country or region because the measures are based on the visual, not verbal, elements of the ad. [37] Foreign public messaging See also: Soft Power  and International Tourism AdvertisingForeign governments, particularly those that own marketable commercial products or services, often promote their interests and positions through the advertising of those goods because the target audience is not only largely unaware of the forum as a vehicle for foreign messaging but also willing to receive the message while in a mental state of absorbing information from advertisements during television commercial breaks, while reading a periodical, or while passing by billboards in public spaces. A prime example of this messaging techniqu e is advertising campaigns to promote international travel. While advertising foreign destinations and services may stem from the typical goal of increasing revenue by drawing more tourism, some travel campaigns carry the additional or alternative intended purpose of promoting good sentiments or improving existing ones among the target audience towards a given nation or region.It is common for advertising promoting foreign countries to be produced and distributed by the tourism ministries of those countries, so these ads often carry political statements and/or depictions of the foreign government's desired international public perception. Additionally, a wide range of foreign airlines and travel-related services which advertise separately from the destinations, themselves, are owned by their respective governments; examples include, though are not limited to, the Emirates airline (Dubai), Singapore Airlines (Singapore), Qatar Airways (Qatar), China Airlines (Taiwan/Republic of China ), and Air China (People's Republic of China).By depicting their destinations, airlines, and other services in a favorable and pleasant light, countries market themselves to populations abroad in a manner that could mitigate prior public impressions. [citation needed] Diversification In the realm of advertising agencies, continued industry diversification has seen observers note that â€Å"big global clients don't need big global agencies any more†. [38] This is reflected by the growth of non-traditional agencies in various global markets, such as Canadian business TAXI and SMART in Australia and has been referred to as â€Å"a revolution in the ad world†. [39] New technology The ability to record shows on digital video recorders (such as TiVo) allow users to record the programs for later viewing, enabling them to fast forward through commercials.Additionally, as more seasons of pre-recorded box sets are offered for sale of television programs; fewer people watch the s hows on TV. However, the fact that these sets are sold, means the company will receive additional profits from the sales of these sets. To counter this effect, a variety of strategies have been employed. Many advertisers have opted for product placement on TV shows like Survivor. Other strategies include integrating advertising with internet-connected EPGs, advertising on companion devices (like smartphones and tablets) during the show, and creating TV apps. Additionally, some like brands have opted for social television sponsorship. citation needed] Advertising education Advertising education has become widely popular with bachelor, master and doctorate degrees becoming available in the emphasis. [citation needed] A surge in advertising interest is typically attributed to the strong relationship advertising plays in cultural and technological changes, such as the advance of online social networking. A unique model for teaching advertising is the student-run advertising agency, wher e advertising students create campaigns for real companies. [40] Organizations such as American Advertising Federation and AdU Network partner established companies with students to create these campaigns.Criticisms Main article: Criticism of advertising While advertising can be seen as necessary for economic growth, it is not without social costs. Unsolicited commercial e-mail and other forms of spam have become so prevalent as to have become a major nuisance to users of these services, as well as being a financial burden on internet service providers. [41] Advertising is increasingly invading public spaces, such as schools, which some critics argue is a form of child exploitation. [42][43] In addition, advertising frequently uses psychological pressure (for example, appealing to feelings of inadequacy) on the intended consumer, which may be harmful.Many even feel that often, advertisements exploit the desires of a consumer, by making a particular product more appealing, by manipul ating the consumers needs and wants. Regulation Main article: Advertising regulation There have been increasing efforts to protect the public interest by regulating the content and the influence of advertising. Some examples are: the ban on television Tobacco advertising imposed in many countries, and the total ban of advertising to children under 12 imposed by the Swedish government in 1991. Though that regulation continues in effect for broadcasts originating within the country, it has been weakened by the European Court of Justice, which had found that Sweden was obliged to accept foreign programming, including those from neighboring countries or via satellite.Greece’s regulations are of a similar nature, â€Å"banning advertisements for children's toys between 7 am and 10 pm and a total ban on advertisement for war toys†. [44] In Europe and elsewhere, there is a vigorous debate on whether (or how much) advertising to children should be regulated. This debate was ex acerbated by a report released by the Kaiser Family Foundation in February 2004 which suggested fast food advertising that targets children was an important factor in the epidemic of childhood obesity in the United States. In New Zealand, South Africa,Pakistan, Afghanistan, Canada, and many European countries, the advertising industry operates a system of self-regulation.Advertisers, advertising agencies and the media agree on a code of advertising standards that they attempt to uphold. The general aim of such codes is to ensure that any advertising is ‘legal, decent, honest and truthful'. Some self-regulatory organizations are funded by the industry, but remain independent, with the intent of upholding the standards or codes like the Advertising Standards Authority in the UK. In the UK most forms of outdoor advertising such as the display of billboards is regulated by the UK Town and County Planning system. Currently the display of an advertisement without consent from the Pl anning Authority is a criminal offense liable to a fine of ? 2,500 per offence.All of the major outdoor billboard companies in the UK have convictions of this nature. In the US many communities believe that many forms of outdoor advertising blight the public realm. [45] As long ago as the 1960s in the US there were attempts to ban billboard advertising in the open countryside. [46] Cities such as Sao Paulo have introduced an outright ban[47] with London also having specific legislation to control unlawful displays. Many advertisers employ a wide-variety of linguistic devices to bypass regulatory laws (e. g. In France, printing English words in bold and French translations in fine print to deal with the Article 120 of the 1994 Toubon Law limiting the use of English). 48] The advertisement of controversial products such as cigarettes and condoms are subject to government regulation in many countries. For instance, the tobacco industry is required by law in most countries to display wa rnings cautioning consumers about the health hazards of their products. Linguistic variation is often used by advertisers as a creative device to reduce the impact of such requirements. Advertising research Main article: Advertising research Advertising research is a specialized form of research that works to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of advertising. It entails numerous forms of research which employ different methodologies.Advertising research includes pre-testing (also known as copy testing) and post-testing of ads and/or campaigns—pre-testing is done before an ad airs to gauge how well it will perform and post-testing is done after an ad airs to determine the in-market impact of the ad or campaign on the consumer. Continuous ad tracking and the Communicus System are competing examples of post-testing advertising research types. [citation needed] Semiotics Main article: Advertising research Today’s culture is made up of meanings between consumers and m arketers. These meanings depict signs and symbols that are encoded in everyday objects. [49] Semiotics is the study of signs and how they are interpreted.Advertising has many hidden signs and meanings within brand names, logos, package designs, print advertisements, and television advertisements. The purpose of semiotics is to study and interpret the message being conveyed in advertisements. Logos and advertisements can be interpreted at two levels known as the surface level and the underlying level. The surface level uses signs creatively to create an image or personality for their product. These signs can be images, words, fonts, colors, or slogan. The underlying level is made up of hidden meanings. The combination of images, words, colors, and slogan must be interpreted by the audience or consumer. [50] The â€Å"key to advertising analysis† is the signifier and the signified.The signifier is the object and the signified is the mental concept. [51] A product has a signifie r and a signified. The signifier is the color, brand name, logo design, and technology. The signified has two meanings known as denotative and connotative. The denotative meaning is the meaning of the product. A television’s denotative meaning would be that it is high definition. The connotative meaning is the product’s deep and hidden meaning. A connotative meaning of a television would be that it is top of the line. [52] Apple is an excellent example of using semiotics in their advertising campaign. Apple’s commercials used a black silhouette of a person that was the age of Apple's target market.They placed the silhouette in front of a blue screen so that the picture behind the silhouette could be constantly changing. However, the one thing that stays the same in these ads is that there is music in the background and the silhouette is listening to that music on a white iPod through white headphones. Through advertising, the white color on a set of earphones no w signifies that the music device is an iPod. The white color signifies almost all of Apple’s products. [53] The semiotics of gender plays a key influence on the way in which signs are interpreted. When considering gender roles in advertising, individuals are influenced by three categories.Certain characteristics of stumuli may enhance or decrease the elaboration of the message (if the product is perceived as feminine or masculine). Second, the characteristics of individuals can affect attention and elaboration of the message (traditional or non-traditional gender role orientation). Lastly, situational factors may be important to influence the elaboration of the message. [54] There are two types of marketing communication claims-objective and subjective. [55] Objective claims stem from the extent to which the claim associates the brand with a tangible product or service feature. For instance, the camera has auto focus features. Subjective claims convey emotional, subjective, impressions of intangible aspects of a product or service.They are non-physical features of a product or service that cannot be directly perceived, as they have no physical reality. For instance the brochure has a beautiful design. [56] Males tend to respond better to objective marketing communications claims while females tend to respond better to subjective marketing communications claims. [57] In advertisements, men are represented as independent. They are shown in more occupations than women. Women are represented mainly as housewives and mothers. Men are more likely to be shown advertising cars or business products, while women advertise domestic products. Men are more likely to be shown outdoors or in business settings. Women are depicted in domestic settings. Men are more often portrayed as authorities. As far as ds go, with age men seem to gain wisdom and authority. On the other hand women seem to disappear with age. Voiceovers are commonly used in advertising. Most voiceove rs are men (figures of up to 94% have been reported). There have been more female voiceovers in recent years but mainly for food, household products, and feminine care products. [58] Gender effects in the processing of advertising According to a 1977 study by David Statt, females process information comprehensively, while males process information through heuristic devices such as procedures, methods or strategies for solving problems, which could have an effect on how they interpret advertising. 59] According to this study, men prefer to have available and apparent cues to interpret the message where females engage in more creative, associative, imagery-laced interpretation. More recently, research by Martin (2003) reveals that males and females differ in how they react to advertising depending on their mood at the time of exposure to the ads, and the affective tone of the advertising. When feeling sad, males prefer happy ads to boost their mood. In contrast, females prefer happy a ds when they are feeling happy. The television programs in which the ads are embedded are shown to influence a consumer's mood state. [60] Enforcement Policy Statement on Food Advertising May 1994 I. Introduction II. Legal Framework for Commission Action III.Nutrient Content Claims A. Claims Describing the Absolute and Comparative Nutrient Content of Foods 1. Absolute Nutrient Content Claims 2. Comparative Nutrient Content Claims 3. Synonyms for Nutrient Content Claims 4. Implied Nutrient Content Claims B. Nutrient Content Claim Disclosures IV. Health Claims A. Standard for Substantiation of Health Claims B. Health Claims for Foods That Contain a Nutrient at a Level That Increases the Risk of a Disease C. Nutrient/Substance Levels Sufficient to Ensure Meaningful Health Benefits D. Minimum Nutritional Value for Foods Bearing Health Claims E. Relevance of Dietary Factors to Claimed Health Benefit FootnotesIntroduction The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) is issuing this statement to pro vide guidance regarding its enforcement policy with respect to the use of nutrient content and health claims in food advertising. The Commission believes the statement is appropriate in light of the passage of the Nutrition Labeling and Education Act of 1990 (NLEA),1 and the Food and Drug Administration's (FDA) January 6, 1993, issuance of food labeling regulations implementing the NLEA. 2 The FTC, FDA, and USDA share jurisdiction over claims made by manufacturers of food products pursuant to a regulatory scheme established by Congress through complementary statutes.Section 5 of the Federal Trade Commission Act (FTC Act) (hereinafter â€Å"Section 5†) prohibits â€Å"unfair or deceptive acts or practices,† and, in the case of food products, Sections 12 and 15 of the FTC Act prohibit â€Å"any false advertisement† that is â€Å"misleading in a material respect. â€Å"3 FDA's authority is embodied in part in Section 403(a) of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FDCA) which prohibits â€Å"labeling [that] is false or misleading in any particular. â€Å"4 Since 1954, the FTC and the FDA have operated under a Memorandum of Understanding,5 under which the Commission has assumed primary responsibility for regulating food advertising, while FDA has taken primary responsibility for regulating food labeling. 6 The NLEA amended Section 403 of the FDCA and effected broad changes in the regulation of nutrition claims on food labels.In addition to requiring nutrition information on virtually all food products, the NLEA directed FDA to standardize and limit the terms permitted on labels, and allows only FDA-approved nutrient content claims and health claims to appear on food labels. 7 While the NLEA is designed in part to prevent deceptive and misleading claims on labels, Congress also intended that nutrient content and health claims educate consumers in order to assist them in maintaining healthy dietary practices. 8 The NLEA also mandated tha t FDA undertake a consumer education effort to educate consumers about the new food label and the importance of diet to health. 9 Therefore, in keeping with its recently expanded and unique jurisdictional mandate, the requirements set forth in FDA's regulations have a broader purpose than preventing false and misleading claims in food labeling.The NLEA applies only to labeling and did not change the FTC's statutory authority to prohibit deceptive acts or practices under Section 5 of the FTC Act. Nevertheless, in light of the comprehensive regulatory scheme established for food labeling claims by the NLEA, the Commission is issuing this statement to clarify how its own authority relates to issues raised by FDA's food labeling regulations. The Commission recognizes the importance of consistent treatment of nutrient content and health claims in food advertising and labeling and seeks to harmonize its advertising enforcement program with FDA's food labeling regulations to the fullest ex tent possible under the statutory authority of the FTC Act. The Commission also recognizes the scientific expertise of FDA in this area.The Commission has traditionally accorded great weight to FDA's scientific determinations in matters of nutrition and health and will continue to do so. In addition, as a general matter, it is unlikely that the Commission will take action under Sections 5 and 12 of the FTC Act regarding nutrient content and health claims if they comply with FDA's regulations. 10 The principal elements of the Commission's authority to regulate nutrient content and health claims in food advertising are set forth below in the discussion of the Commission's legal framework in Part II of this statement. Part III of the statement addresses the Commission's approach to harmonization with the NLEA and FDA's regulations in the area of nutrient content claims in food advertising.Part IV of the statement addresses the Commission's approach to health claims in food advertising. Claims made in food advertising may raise issues addressed in more than one section of this statement. Advertisers, therefore, should comply with all relevant provisions of the statement and not simply the provision that seems most directly applicable. In issuing this statement, the Commission recognizes that the FDA intends its regulatory approach to be dynamic, designed to respond to changes in science and consumer understanding of nutrition and diet-disease issues. Therefore, while the Commission's purpose in issuing this statement is to provide guidance on how t will enforce Sections 5 and 12 in the food advertising area, the statement is not intended to provide a comprehensive analysis of how each of FDA's regulations relates to the Commission's enforcement policy. Instead, this statement focuses on the general issues that are likely to remain relevant to the Commission's regulation of food advertising over time, as specific provisions in the FDA regulations are amended. Legal Framework for Commission Action As noted above, the FTC regulates food advertising under its statutory authority to prohibit deceptive acts or practices under Section 5 of the FTC Act. The Commission has set forth its interpretations of this authority in its Deception Policy Statement11 and its Statement on Advertising Substantiation. 2 FTC food cases, applying the principles articulated in these statements, have also established a growing body of precedent against which food advertisers can assess the lawfulness of their claims. 13   As set out in the Deception Statement, the Commission will find an advertisement deceptive under Section 5 and, therefore, unlawful, if it contains a representation or omission of fact that is likely to mislead consumers acting reasonably under the circumstances, and that representation or omission is material. 14 The first step in a deception analysis is to identify representations made by an advertisement. A representation may be made by express o r implied claims. An express claim directly makes a representation.The identification of an implied claim requires an examination of both the representation and the overall context of the ad,15 including the juxtaposition of phrases, images, and the nature of the claim and the transaction. 16 In other words, in ascertaining the meaning of an advertisement, the Commission will focus on the ad's overall net impression. 17 In addition to deception arising from affirmative representations in an advertisement, the omission of material information may also be deceptive in certain circumstances. First, deception can occur through omission of information that is necessary to prevent an affirmative representation from being misleading. 8 Second, â€Å"it can also be deceptive for a seller to simply remain silent, if he does so under circumstances that constitute an implied but false representation. â€Å"19 However, â€Å"[n]ot all omissions are deceptive, even if providing the informatio n would benefit consumers. â€Å"20 As with advertisements that contain affirmative representations, the test for whether an omission is deceptive is whether the overall impression created by the ad is deceptive. 21 The next step in identifying deception in an ad requires the Commission to consider the representation from the perspective of a consumer acting reasonably under the circumstances. 22 Finally, a representation must be material, i. e. , likely to affect a consumer's choice or use of a product or service. 3 Express claims and claims involving health or safety are presumptively material. 24 In addition, objective claims carry with them the implication that they are supported by valid evidence. It is deceptive, therefore, to make an express or implied nutrition or health benefit claim for a food unless, at the time the claim is made, the advertiser possesses and relies upon a reasonable basis substantiating the claim. 25 A reasonable basis consists of competent and reliable evidence. In the context of nutrient content or health claims, substantiation will usually require competent and reliable scientific evidence sufficient to support the claim that is made. 6 Commission orders generally require that scientific evidence consist of tests, analyses, research, studies or other evidence conducted and evaluated in an objective manner by persons qualified to do so, using procedures generally accepted in the relevant profes

Ib Psychology Sociocultural Notes

Explain the formation of stereotypes and their effect on behavior. †¢Definition: Stereotypes assign similar characteristics to all members of a group, despite the fact that the group members may vary widely from one another. †¢Characteristics: †¢social-cognitive theories: †¢our social world is very complex and presents us with too much information †¢since our capacity to process information is limited, there is a need to simplify our social way †¢one of the way to avoid information overload is social categorization †¢these are stereotypes Stereotypes simplify information processing in social perception †¢stereotypes are schemas as they: are energy-saving devices, automatically activated, stable and resistant to change, affect behavior. †¢Not stable across cluture Studies COHEN Cohen presented participants with a videotape showing a woman having dinner with her husband. Half the participants were told that the woman was a waitress and the r est that she was a librarian. At a later memory test, participants showed better recall for stereotype- consistent information. Those who thought she was a waitress remembered her beer drinking.Participants who thought she was a librarian were more likely to remember that she was wearing glasses and was listening to classical music. Like the studies on the effects of schemas, Cohen’s study shows that we are likely to notice and subsequently remember information which is consistent with our stereotypes. FISKE AND DYER Like all schemas, stereotypes are formed over time on the basis of relevant experiences. For Fiske and Dyer (1985), stereotype formation begins with the learning of independent schema elements. For example, the formation of a ender schema for ‘female’ begins with isolated elements such as ‘girls dress in pink’ and ‘girls play with dolls’ whereas, ‘boys dress in blue and play with cars’. With advancing age additi onal elements are added, such as information about gender-appropriate behaviours and work-related preferences. Eventually, strong associations form between all the various elements and a single schema emerges. Once formed, repeated practice in the use of the schema may lead to such levels of integration that it can be activated automatically and unconsciously seen then. Bargh Participants in this experiment were asked to complete a test involving 30 items.This task was presented to the participants as a language proficiency task. Each of the 30 items consisted of five unrelated words. For each item participants had to use four of the five words to form, as fast as possible, a grammatically correct sentence. There were two conditions in this experiment. In one, the task contained words related to and intending to activate the elderly stereotype (e. g. grey, retired, wise). In the other condition, the words used were unrelated to the elderly stereotype (e. g. thirsty, clean, private). After completing the experimental tasks, participants were directed towards the elevator.A confederate, sitting in the corridor, timed how long the participants took to walk from the experimental room to the elevator. †¢Bargh et al. found that participants who had their elderly stereotype activated walked significantly more slowly towards the elevator than the rest of the participants. Priming of this stereotype must have taken place unconsciously. As Bargh et al. note, the task words did not directly relate to time or speed and no conscious awareness of the elderly stereotype was ever in evidence for the duration of the study. Illusory correlationThese researchers asked participants to read descriptions about two made-up groups (Group A and Group B). The descriptions were based on a number of positive and negative behaviours. Group A (the majority group) had twice as many members than Group B (the minority group). In the descriptions, Group A members performed 18 positive and 8 negative behaviours. Group B members performed 9 positive and 4 negative behaviours. So, for both groups, twice as much of the information involved positive, rather than negative, behaviours. Clearly, there was no correlation between group membership and the types of behaviours exhibited by the groups.However, when asked later, participants did seem to have perceived an illusory correlation. More of the undesirable behaviours were attributed to the minority Group B, than the majority Group A. Hamilton and Gifford’s explanation of their findings is based on the idea that distinctive information draws attention. Group B members and negative behaviours are both numerically fewer and therefore more distinct than Group A members and negative behaviours. The combination of Group B members performing negative behaviours, therefore, stands out more than the combination of Group A members performing such behaviours.This causes the illusory correlation. †¢Explain social learnin g theory, making reference to two relevant studies. Social Learning theory: In particular social learning theorists emphasise the role of observation and imitation of role models. In general, social development is seen as a continuous learning process, rather than as happening in stages. -If children were passive witnesses to an aggressive display by an adult they would imitate this aggressive behavior when given the opportunity. -The researchers attempted to reduce this problem by pre-testing the children for how aggressive they were.They did this by observing the children in the nursery and judged their aggressive behaviour on four 5-point rating scales. It was then possible to match the children in each group so that they had similar levels of aggression in their everyday behaviour. The experiment is therefore an example of a matched pairs design. Controlled 24 in a group The findings support Bandura's Social Learning Theory. That is, children learn social behaviour such as aggre ssion through the process of observation learning – through watching the behaviour of another person.The findings from this and similar studies have been used in the argument that media violence might be contributing in some degree to violence in society. The obvious criticism of this argument is that there are many other factors influencing whether or not we are likely to imitate screen violence. One of the major factors is perhaps the level of aggression we already have, which might have been learned, in our family relationships or elsewhere. The major criticism of the Social Learning Approach to child development is its oversimplified description of human behaviour.Although it can explain some quite complex behaviour it cannot adequately account for how we develop a whole range of behaviour including thoughts and feelings. We have a lot of cognitive control over our behaviour and simply because we have had experiences of violence does not mean we have to reproduce such beh aviour. It is also worth noting that the Social Learning Approach has little room for the role of inherited factors or for the role of maturation in development. This theory assumes that humans learn behavior through observational learning – in other words, people can learn by watching models and imitating their behavior.Explain Attention: The person must first pay attention to the model. Retention: The observer must be able to remember that behavior has been observed. Motor reproduction: The observer has to be able to replicate the action. Coding/remember the act. Motivation: Learners must want to demonstrate what they have learned. Whether or not they like the model. Liking. Rewards/punishment. Identification. Consistency. Internalized outcome expectancies. Increases the likelihood of carrying out. If we identify with the model (we want to be like them) Bandura: Reinforcement is not necessary for learningVicarious- Unintentionally picking up something. Indirect learning. Un conscious. This theory assumes that humans learn behavior through observational learning – in other words, people can learn by watching models and imitating their behavior. Attention: The person must first pay attention to the model. Retention: The observer must be able to remember that behavior has been observed. Motor reproduction: The observer has to be able to replicate the action. Coding/remember the act. Motivation: Learners must want to demonstrate what they have learned. Whether or not they like the model. Liking. Rewards/punishment.Identification. Consistency. If we identify with the model (we want to be like them) Internalized outcome expectancies. Increases the likelihood of carrying out. Bandura: Reinforcement is not necessary for learning Vicarious- Unintentionally picking up something. Indirect learning. Unconscious. Conscious Control condition – The children were shown the film with the adult behaving aggressively towards the Bobo doll. Model-rewarded co ndition – Children saw the same film used in the control condition but after the aggression was over, a second adult appeared in the film to reward the aggressor with sweets and a soft drink.Bobo dolls are clown-like dolls with a weight in the bottom. They are designed in such a way as to always bounce back when knocked down. Model-punished condition – As the model-rewarded condition, but the second adult scolded and spanked the model for behaving aggressively. After viewing the film, all the children were taken individually into a playroom with several toys which included a Bobo doll and a mallet. While in the playroom, the children’s behaviour was observed for a period of 10 minutes and any acts of aggression similar to those performed by the model were recorded.The control and the model-rewarded groups showed an equal level of aggressiveness towards the Bobo doll (2. 5 acts). The model-punished condition was associated with significantly fewer aggressive acts (1. 5 acts). However, when at a later stage the children were asked to reproduce the behaviour of the model and were rewarded for each act of aggression they displayed, they all (regardless of which original condition they were in) produced the same number of aggressive acts (3. 5 acts). Bandura’s study exemplified and supported the following features of SLT.Vicarious (observational) learning – The children clearly learned specific aggressive behaviours by observing the adult model. The learning manifested during the second part of the study was based on vicarious reinforcement or punishment as the children were never rewarded or punished themselves. Reinforcement or punishment was necessary for performance not learning: All children behaved in an equally aggressive manner towards the Bobo doll when rewarded to do so. Selective imitation in 14-month-old infants (Gergely et al. , 2002) This experiment used 14-month-old infants as participants and involved two condition s.Hands-free condition – In this condition, the infants observed an adult place her hands on a table. Following this, she used a strange action to illuminate a light box: she bent over and pressed the box with her forehead. One week later, the same infants were given the opportunity to play with the box; 69% of them used their head to illuminate the light. Hands-occupied condition – Infants in this condition observed the adult perform the same strange action to illuminate the box. In this condition, however, the model was using her hands to hold a blanket around her shoulders.This rendered the hands unavailable for other actions. When given the opportunity one week later to play with the box, only 21% of the infants illuminated the light by using their head. The rest used their hands to press the light. Discussing their findings, Gergely et al. note that in the hands-occupied condition infants seem to have assumed that the adult used her head because she had to. But th is constraint did not apply to the infants. In the hands-free condition, the adult could have chosen to use her hands. She did not.The children seem to have assumed there must have been a reason for this choice, so they copied it. †¢Discuss the use of compliance techniques (for example, lowballing, foot? in? the? door, reciprocity). Aronson et al. (2007) define compliance as ‘a form of social influence involving direct requests from one person to another’. A demonstration of the FITD technique (Freeman and Fraser, 1966) These researchers arranged for a researcher, posing as a volunteer worker, to ask a number of householders in California to allow a big ugly public-service sign reading ‘Drive Carefully’ to be placed in their front gardens.Only 17% of the householders complied with this request. A different set of homeowners was asked whether they would display a small ‘Be a Safe Driver’ sign. Nearly all of those asked agreed with this requ est. Two weeks later these same homeowners were asked, by a ‘volunteer worker’, whether they would display the much bigger and ugly ‘Drive Carefully’ sign in their front gardens. 76% of them complied with this second request, a far higher percentage than the 17% who had complied in the first condition.In a second study, Freedman and Frazer (1966) first asked a number of householders to sign a petition in favour of keeping California beautiful, something nearly everybody agreed to do. After two weeks, they send a new ‘volunteer worker’ who asked these homeowners whether they would allow the big and ugly ‘Drive Carefully’ sign of the previous study to be displayed in their front gardens. Note that the two requests relate to completely different topics, but nearly half of the homeowners agreed with the second request.Again, this is significantly higher than the 17% of homeowners who agreed to display the sign in the absence of any pri or contact. But, how could the findings of the second experiment be explained? According to Freeman and Frazer (1966), signing the petition changed the view the homeowners had about themselves. As a result, they saw themselves as unselfish citizens with well-developed civic principles. Agreeing, two weeks later, to display the ‘Drive Carefully’ sign reflected their need to comply with their newly-formed self-image.Not only do commitments change us but also, to use Gialdini’s own expression, they ‘grow their own legs’. Sherman (1980) called residents in Indiana (USA) and asked them if, hypothetically, they would volunteer to spend 3 hours collecting for the American Cancer Society. Three days later, a second experimenter called the same people and actually requested help for this organization. Of those responding to the earlier request, 31% agreed to help. This is much higher than the 4% of a similar group of people who volunteered to help when approa ched directly. Low-ballingIt involves changing an offer to make it less attractive to the target person after this person has agreed to it. A demonstration of lowballing (Burger and Cornelius, 2003) In this study, students were contacted by phone by a female caller and asked whether they would be prepared to donate five dollars to a scholarship fund for underprivileged students. There were three experimental conditions. The lowball condition – Students were told that those who contributed would receive a coupon for a free smoothie at a local juice bar. Students who agreed were then informed that the investigator realized she had run out of coupons.The students were asked if they would still be willing to contribute. 77. 6% agreed to make a donation in this condition. The interrupt condition – The caller made the same initial request as in the lowball condition. However, before the participants had a chance to give their answer, the caller interrupted them to let them know that there were no more coupons left. Only 16% of the participants made a donation in this condition. The control condition – Participants were simply asked to donate the five dollars without any mention of coupons. 42% made a donation in the control condition.The results support the view that the lowball technique is based on the principle of commitment. The technique is effective only when individuals make an initial public commitment. Once they have made this commitment, individuals feel obliged to act in accordance with it even when the conditions that led to them making the commitment have changed, (Cialdini, 2009). †¢Discuss factors influencing conformity (for example, culture, groupthink, risky shift, minority influence). Examine the role of two cultural dimensions on behaviour (for example, individualism/collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, Confucian dynamism).We have already defined the terms individualism and collectivism as used by Hofstede. Cultures di ffer with respect to how they socialize their members to develop identities that are either individually or collectively based. In individualistic cultures: -the personal is emphasized more than the social -persons are viewed as unique -individual autonomy and self-expression are valued -competitiveness and self-sufficiency are highly regarded. Societies high on collectivism are characterized by giving priority to the goals of important groups (e. g. xtended family, work group) and define one’s identity on the basis of one’s membership of such groups. So, in collectivist cultures: -the social is emphasized more than the personal -the self is defined by long-standing relationships and obligations -individual autonomy and self-expression are not encouraged -there is more of an emphasis on achieving group harmony rather than on individual achievement. It is not that members of individualistic societies do not have the need to belong or that their identities are exclusivel y personal identities.SIT was after all developed in individualistic counties (e. g. UK, Australia) to explain primarily the behaviour of members of those societies. However, they are less focused on group harmony or doing their duty for the types of mostly traditional group that collectivist societies are based on (Brewer and Chen, 2007). This hypothesis was tested in a field experiment–experimental study by Petrova et al. (2007). Their study involved over 3000 students of a US university. Nearly half were native US students and the rest were Asian students at the same university.All were sent an e-mail asking them to participate in a survey. A month later, the students received a second e-mail asking them whether they would agree to take part in an online survey. Petrova et al. obtained the standard FITD effect. The proportion of students who had agreed to the first survey and then agreed to the second was higher than the proportion who had initially agreed to the first sur vey. More importantly, the researchers also found that compliance was twice as strong with the native US students as it was with the Asian students for the second equest. This finding is even more remarkable if one takes into account that the first request led to a higher level of compliance among the Asian students. Bond and Smith (1996) carried out a meta-analysis of 133 conformity studies all using the Asch paradigm. The studies were carried out in 17 countries. The meta-analysis showed that more conformity was obtained in collectivistic countries like the Fiji Islands, Hong Kong and Brazil than in individualistic countries like the USA, the UK or France (Table 4. 2).Bond and Smith’s findings are consistent with the way that the individualism/collectivism dimension was portrayed earlier (pages 135–136). Members of collectivistic countries value conformity because it promotes supportive group relationships and reduces conflicts. This, agreeing with others in collecti vist societies is more likely to be viewed as a sign of sensitivity than one of submission to somebody else’s will, which is the way it is often perceived in individualistic cultures (Hodges and Geyer, 2006). Many have argued that time is not defined and perceived in the same way everywhere.To a significant extent, the way humans experience time is influenced by their culture (Hall, 1959). In 2001, Hofstede proposed a classification of cultures based on their time orientation. In the mid-80s, Bond asked a number of Chinese social scientists to create a list of what Chinese people viewed as their basic values (Hofstede and Bond, 1988). A questionnaire, based on this list, was then administered to people in 23 countries. The outcome of this project was the emergence of a fifth cultural dimension, not related to the other four originally identified by Hofstede (page 000).The additional dimension was called Confucian dynamism because it reflected Confucius’s ideas about th e importance of perseverance, patience, social hierarchy, thrift and having a sense of shame. The new dimension was later renamed long-term vs short-time orientation. Cultures scoring high on this dimension show a dynamic, future-oriented mentality. These are cultures that value long-standing, as opposed to short-term, traditions and values. Individuals in such cultures strive to fulfil their own long-term social obligations and avoid loss of face. Cultures with a short-term view are not as concerned with past traditions.They are rather impatient, are present-oriented and strive for immediate results. In practical terms, the long-term versus short-term orientation refers to the degree to which cultures encourage delayed gratification of material, social, and emotional needs among their members (Matsumoto and Juang, 2008). †¢Seven of the ten highest ranking countries on Hofstede’s time orientation dimension were in Asia. Western countries tended to be more short-term orie nted. In eastern countries, characterized by a long-time orientation, patience is valued more than in Western countries.Based on this, Chen et al. predicted that part of the Western mentality is to place a higher value on immediate consumption than an eastern mentality. They investigated this idea in an experimental study using 147 Singaporean ‘bicultural participants’. This technique uses participants who have been exposed extensively to two different cultures (in this case, Singaporean and American) and assumes that both can affect behaviour depending on which is more actively represented in the mind at any particular moment. Chen et al. electively activated one or the other of the two cultures by presenting half the participants with a collage of easily recognizable photos which were relevant to Singaporean culture and the other half with a collage of photos relevant to US culture. Impatience was tested by having the participants perform an online shopping scenario i n order to purchase a novel. The book could be delivered either within four working days for a standard fee or next day for an additional charge. The extra money participants were willing to pay for faster delivery of the book was used as a measure of impatience.Chen et al. found that US-primed participants valued immediate consumption more than the Singaporean-primed participants. Strong support of cultural differences in time orientation comes from an impressive study by Wang et al. (2009). They surveyed over 5000 university students in 45 countries and compared them on time orientation. They found, for instance, that students coming from what they call long-term orientation cultures were also more likely to postpone immediate satisfaction and wait for bigger rewards later.Ayoun and Moreo (2009) used a survey method to investigate the influence of time orientation on the strategic behaviour of hotel managers. A questionnaire was posted to top-level hotel managers in the USA and Th ailand. Compared to US managers, Thai managers were found to place a stronger emphasis on longer-term strategic plans and a stronger reliance on long-term evaluation of strategy. Cultural differences in time orientation also seem to relate to everyday behaviours.Levine and Norenzayan (1999) measured how fast people walked a 60-foot distance in downtown areas in major cities, the speed of a visit to a post office, and the accuracy of clocks in 31 countries. They found that life pace, as indicated by the activities they measured, was fastest in countries like Switzerland, Ireland and Germany and slowest in Mexico, Indonesia, Brazil, and Syria. The last three studies are natural experiments and, in effect, observational studies. Their findings should, therefore, be interpreted with caution as no confident causal statements can be made in the absence of adequate extraneous variables.

Current and Projected Situation in Bosnia- Herzegovina Essay

Current and Projected Situation in Bosnia- Herzegovina - Essay Example The armed conflict in Bosnia between 1992 and 1995 is rather long and arduous to explain, but an attempt will be made here. Basically, Serbians were funding their own armed forces, which the Croats were doing as well. Bosnian government forces were also involved. The three opposing sides switched loyalties several times during the course of the war. Since friction had been brewing for a long time in the area, there was much unrest over whether this conflict could be considered a civil war or not. Research suggests that there were at least 100,000 people who were killed. Not only this, but there were almost 2 million people who were displaced as a cause of this war. The casualties that were recorded by percentages included Bosniaks, or Bosnian Muslims, at roughly 65%. Serbs constituted about a fourth of those killed, while Croats only represented about 10% of those killed. Obviously, the Muslims were those who were most affected. Systematic rape was common, which happened to several thousand people, a third of whom were women and children. According to intelligence figures, an almost overwhelming majority of the war crimes committed in this conflict were done by Serbian people. Genocide was committed both by the Serbs and the Croats, while Bosniaks were charged with the lesser crime of breaking rules in the Geneva Convention. The war in Bosnia started as a result of the disintegration of the Republic of Yugoslavia. Slobodan MiloÃ… ¡ević, who was elected President of Serbia in 1989, was originally born in Yugoslavia. He is widely thought to have incited violence through the proffering of Serbian nationalism. However, at the ICTY (International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia), it was often debated as to what crimes he should have been prosecuted for, as it was argued by some writers and reporters that he hadn't really had as significant a role in the war as some people argued. Some people argued that Miloevi was a butcher, that he incited the wars that were in Serbia, Croatia, Bosnia, and the disputed territory of Kosovo. Others yet claim that Miloevi did not do anything more wrong than some of the other people at fault for similar crimes in the Bosnian War. This is what is going to be analyzed forthwith, is what the roles of each ethnic group in the conflict were. Obviously, they probably would change several times during the course of the war. It is also obvious that this war was filled with genocide. Although Noam Chomsky wrote a scathing report about people who are "worthy victims" and

Third World Countries Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Third World Countries - Essay Example Accordingly, underdevelopment emerges as a consequences of culture, politics, dependency and colonialisation, although not necessarily in that order. Dependency theorists look towards history for the clarification of the reasons why some countries have successfully attained economic development while others have displayed a persistent failure to do the same and, are immediately influenced by Wallerstein's world systems theory. The aforementioned may be defined in the following terms (DuPlessis, 1988: 222): "Wallerstein's method, is premised on two linked propositions: first that social change occurs only in social systems and second, that the social system appropriate as an object of analysis is a world system Hence, his concern is with the evolution of structures of the whole system,' understood as entirely distinct from its component parts, rather than with the histories - even if treated comparatively - of the various regions, nations or people that it includes. A world system, is a real, identifiable, analyzable thing: bounded and substantially self-contained, it consists of a unified economy founded on a well-developed division of labor yet incorporating a multiplicity of cultures." As may be deduced from the above quote, the World Systems Theory (WST) defines the global political economy as a single whole, but comprised of numerous distinct categories. The first category is the core, who "benefited the most from the capitalist world economy," because they were the colonial powers and motivated colonialism in order to expand both their economic and political influence over the globe, using their strong military forces to do so ("Modern History Sourcebook", n.d.: n.p.). The second category, the Periphery, can be defined as the exploited and the oppressed compared to the exploiter and oppressor status of the core. As Lachman (1988) argues, the periphery countries did not have the strong and stable political systems which the core did, also lacking the military force which the core had. Consequently, this left them vulnerable to forced political and economic exploitation. Even with the demise of colonialism, the systems theory remains very active for two reasons. The first is that the economic effects of imperialism are long-term. This historical era gave the North or the core, a tremendous head start over the South in terms of development, even culminating in the regression of the economies of the South and limiting their potential for development. As stated in the "Modern History Sourcebook," according to Wallerstein's systems theory, "an analysis of the history of the capitalist world system shows that it has brought about a skewed development in which the economic and social disparities between sections of the world economy have increased rather than provided prosperity for all." The second is that colonialism was ultimately followed by neo-colonialism, whereby the multinational corporate representatives of the core continued the drainage of the south's resources and its transference to the North (Li, 2000). As per the presented argument, representing the stand of the dependency theorists on the question of the South's continued underdevelopment, underdevelopment is rooted in historical circumstances which effectively ensured the impoverishment of the South and its